Pregnancy: the Effects of Alcohol and Substance Abuse Essay

Abstract This paper examined the effects of alcohol and substance abuse on fetal development in expecting mothers. The critical periods of fetal development during pregnancy are reviewed and discussed in order to determine the effects alcohol and substance can cause during certain stages. In order to gain a more efficient understanding of the effects different substances can have on fetal development the following substances were studied: (1) alcohol, (2) cocaine, (3) opioids, (4) nicotine (smoking), and (5) cannabis sativa (marijuana). Each substance (previously listed) examined was provided with supporting evidenced of past research. Developmental (i.e. physical and mental) impairments were found to be common amongst the general population of newborn infants and children exposed to alcohol and drug substances in utero. Use of alcohol and drug substances during pregnancy not only put expecting mothers own health at risk, but their fetuses as well. Providing expecting mothers with proper treatment for alcohol and substance use has proven to be an effective method in reducing the risk of impairing their fetus’s development (i.e. physical, and mental) during pregnancy and later into childhood. It is essential to provide general awareness to the public about the affects that alcohol and substance abuse can have on fetal development and help pregnant women seek proper care. Pregnancy: The Effects of Alcohol and Substance Abuse on Fetal Development Today alcohol and substance abuse is continuing to increase across the general population, particularly among expecting mothers (Cohen &Inaba, 2007). Many infants being born today suffer from severe physical, mental, and behavioral deformities and impairments due to alcohol and substance exposure in utero (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Research has been continuously conducted in order to examine the effects different substances can have on a developing fetuses growth (i.e. physical, mental, and behavioral) in utero and after birth. The majority of their findings indicate a strong correlation between the time, type and amount of substances mothers use during their pregnancy and the effects it has on their fetuses (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). The purpose of this paper is to address these issues through several different concepts: (a) first, what are the critical levels of development in utero?, (b) an in depth review on substances associated with fetal impairments (i.e. alcohol, cocaine, opioids, nicotine, and cannabis sativa (marijuana)), supported by scientific evidence and possible treatment, and (d) identifying substance abuse in expecting mothers and reducing harm to the fetus. Critical Periods of Fetal Development The first critical period of fetal development is known as the germ cell period. This begins when a sperm and egg unite and their genetic information is fused together (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). During this period exposure to any form of toxicant substances (i.e. alcohol and drug substances) can potentially harm the germ cells development. This can have a direct impact on not only the mother’s fertility, but also her future child’s health (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). After the germ cells have developed past what is known as a single-cell zygote, they are now identified as a fetus (meaning they are capable of living outside of the mothers womb) and have reached the embryonic and fetal period of development (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). The fetus grows increasingly fast during this period, because it is consider more vulnerable to environmental and substance exposures than during other stages o f development (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). This is due to the fact that major organs are beginning to form, grow and develop, which will continue throughout the remainder of the pregnancy and infancy (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). Disruption of development (i.e. environmental toxins and substances) during this period can cause major defects in the structure of developing organs (i.e. brain cellular structure, lungs, heart, kidney, and etc.), and other important structures (i.e. bones and muscles). This may result in the death of the fetus or cause severe physical malformations (i.e. congenital abnormalities) or mental impairments (i.e. disorders) (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). As the stages of prenatal development progress, exposure to environmental toxins and substances can result in the fetus developing an array of defects and deficiencies that can continue after birth and up through adulthood (i.e. physical, mental, and behavioral) (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). It is clear that expecting mothers need to be conscious of what they expose their fetuses to in utero so they develop properly. It is imperative that expecting mothers avoid the use of any alcohol or other drug substances during their pregnancy. Each period of development for a fetus is critical and exposure to alcohol and substances can significantly reduce their chance of being born and living a healthy life (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). The Effects of Different Substances on Fetal Development Expecting mothers need to be cautious of what they expose their growing fetus to throughout the entire pregnancy. Disruption of proper fetal development can cause severe deformities in the fetus physically, mentally, and behaviorally (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Expecting mothers ingest alcohol and drug substances leave their fetus susceptible to severe developmental impairments (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). The following areas will be covered in this section: (1) fetal exposure to alcohol, (2) fetal exposure to cocaine, (3) fetal exposure to opioids, (4) fetal exposure to nicotine, and (5) fetal exposure to cannabis sativa (marijuana). Fetal Exposure to Alcohol When expecting mothers consume alcohol they are immediately putting their fetus’s health at risk. Essentially they are leaving their fetus susceptible to not only structural deformities, but also a variety of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) (Feldman, pg.76, 2011). Out of all of the FASDs, fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is the most common. Statistics indicate that over â€Å"0.33-2.9 cases per 1,000 births have FAS† (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). FAS typically results in the fetus developing the following problems: (1) severe abnormalities in physical, neurological and behavioral functioning and development, (2) severely reduced weight and cranium size, (3) deformities of the face and other body parts (otherwise known as dysmorphia), and (4) are at higher risk for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) (Feldman, pg.76, 2011). In essence exposure to alcohol can significantly affect a fetus internal and external body structure, can cause neurological and behavioral abnormalitie s, and even physical deformities. Research Kenneth Jones (1986) supports this assumption through his studies on FAS. Jones (1986) findings suggest that FAS effects the development of the fetus’s brain and facial/bodily structures during utero and after birth. Typically children will be diagnosed with moderate to severe mental retardation due to structural deformities in their the brain (i.e. microcephaly, short palpebral fissures, and etc.) or they will be identified as having severe facial dysmorphia (i.e. long smooth philtrum, thin vermilion of the upper lip, joint anomalies, altered palmar crease pattern, and etc.) (Jones, 1986). Jones (1986) concluded that over 40% of infants who are born are born to alcoholic mothers, whom are then diagnosed with FAS. However, it is possible for doctors to reduce the chances of children developing FAS and other FASDs through preventive forms of treatment. The majority of times children are more susceptible to developing FASD due to the doctors inability to clearly identify the expecting mothers level of drinking (Bakhireva & Savage, 2011). If physicians are given the capability to identify expecting mothers regular drinking patterns they can provide her with alternative methods to drinking and reduce the risk of her child develop an FASD (Bakhireva & Savage, 2011). Bakhireva & Savage (2011) found that in identifying expecting mothers drinking levels, physicians would be able to detect the fetus’s risk for developing FASD and other neurobehavioral disorders later in life and prevent it. Bakhireva & Savage (2011) findings suggest that there are biomarkers that are more sensitive to alcohol metabolism, which are capable of detecting the alcohol in tissue types for longer periods of time since the mother last drank. This will then assist physicians in diagnosing fetal alcohol exposure and possible damage to the fetus, which will then help them discern what preventive measures need to be taken. Developing new methods of detection and prevention of FASD is one of the most effective ways to help children avoid severe d evelopmental impairments. Expecting mothers also need to be informed of the damages that alcohol exposure can cause and seek the necessary care. Fetal Exposure to Cocaine Today over 558,000 expecting mothers abuse cocaine (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH)(2005) cited by Cohen & Inaba (2007) determined that there was a â€Å"4% rate of cocaine use among women in their first trimester, 3% among those in their second trimester, and 2% among those in their third trimester†. Because of this expecting mothers need to become aware of how cocaine can affect their developing fetus. Typically the stimulants in cocaine affect the fetus’s heart, which leads to blood vessel to constriction. This causes unhealthy elevations of blood pressure in both the mother and fetus (Cohen & Inaba, 2011). For the fetus there life is put at great risk. This is because the mother’s body will stop the flow of any blood, nutrients, or oxygen from reaching the fetus and can cause retarted fetal development or even a stroke within the fetus’s brain (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). This type of constriction can also increase th e chances of the mother having a spontaneous abortion (due to the separation of the placenta from the uterine wall) or a premature delivery (in some cases (typically the third trimester) cocaine can induce labor) (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Even when an infant makes it through delivery the majority of them suffer from severe withdrawal symptoms. Signs of withdrawal typically consist of: (1) extreme agitation and irritability, (2) hyperactive movement and high respiratory rates, (3) seizures and tremors, and (4) uncontrollable sweating and crying (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Although physical deformities are common amongst the majority of substances infants are exposed do during utero, cocaine has been found to cause the most damage neurologically. Typically children exposed to cocaine show an increase in â€Å"neurobehavioral disorganization, irritability, and poor language development† (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). In fact researchers Brown, Bakeman, Coles, Sexson, & Demi (1998) studied the effects of cocaine and alcohol exposure during utero on mother’s newborn infant’s and how it affected their birth weight, length, ponderal index, and irritability levels. Researchers found that exposed infants showed an increase in fetal growth deficits, infant orientation, and irritability and a decrease in respiratory rate and proper motor development (only affected by cocaine exposure) (Brown, Bakeman, Coles, Sexson, & Demi, 1998). Cocaine exposure clearly has a severe effect on fetal development. Therefore it is essential that preventive techniques be discussed and reviewed for expecting mothers who are using. Just like alcohol use, there are methods to testing expecting mothers for cocaine use. The most commonly used methods are urine toxicology and serum toxicology, which helps detect â€Å"metabolite benzoylecgonine† (substance found in cocaine) from 72 hours to two weeks after the mother has used (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). In the majority of states today it is mandatory for expecting mothers to be routinely screened for drug use during prenatal doctor visits. In some states a positive test before delivery results in the arrest and incarceration of the expecting mother (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). Most health care providers, however, have argued that women should be given proper drug counseling, confidential screening, and referral for treatment and case management rather than criminal penalties (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). That way expecting mothers can receive the necessary treatment to help make sure the fetus is not harmed anymore than it already has. Essentially when it comes to cocaine use, expecting mothers, and what preventive measures to take, proper screening and treatment are most effective in making sure a fetus develops properly and is born healthy. Fetal Exposure to Opioids Opioids are the most common substance used by expecting mothers. Heroin and methadone are the two most abused. It is assumed that each year there are over 7000 opiate-exposed babies being born (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). Typically expecting mothers will continue to use opioids throughout their pregnancy. When expecting mothers use opioids it usually takes less than one hour for the substance to reach the placental barrier. After only 6 hours it is common for not only the mother to experience withdrawal symptoms, but her fetus as well (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). As the mother goes through withdrawal the substance epinephrine may increase in the amniotic sacks fluid, which could cause severe damage to the growing fetus (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). Continued use of opioids throughout a pregnancy usually results in the following: (1) fetal growth retardation, (2) premature abruption of the placenta (which leads to premature delivery, spontaneous abortion, miscarriage, or stillbirth), (3) neurobehavioral abnor malities (i.e. abnormal sleep patterns, behavioral problems, poor motor skills, learning disorders, mental retardation, and others), and (4) greater risk for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). In some cases opioid use can cause the infant to experience Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS) (severe withdrawal after delivery). It can last from 48-72 hours to days, weeks, or even months. It all depends on how much the mother exposed her infant to during utero (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Symptoms of NAS are much more intense than an infant who may be withdrawing from nicotine or marijuana. When an infant is experiencing NAS they will exhibit the following characterisitcs: (1) extreme hyperactivity, agitation and irritability, (2) high-pitched crying, sweating and tremors, (3) intense muscle spasms, (4) restlessness, (5) increased respiration, (6) vomiting, and diarrhea, and (7) severe seizures, which may lead to death (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). If an infant successfully makes is through withdrawal they are capable of being cleaned of any opioid substance that they were exposed to during utero. Just as there are preventive measures for expecting mothers using alcohol or cocaine, there are preventive measures for mothers who use opiates. Today there are several clinical options for management of opiate use during pregnancy: (1) methadone maintenance, (2) the use of buprenorphine and naltrexone, and (3) opioid detoxification (usually done during the mothers second trimester) (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). Although not all risks to the fetus are eliminated with these types of treatment, the use of methadone, buprenorphine and naltrexone does help reduce the amount of spontaneous abortions and transmission of infections that opiate use usually causes (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). The main purpose of these methods is to essentially stop the mother from using altogether and reduce the chances of NAS when the child is born. If the expecting mother is able to detox and stop opiate use the chances of her child being born healthy is greater. Fetal Exposure to Nicotine There are over 2,000 different compounds that can be identified in one cigarette. Regardless of the many unhealthy substances contained in one cigarette, more than 17% of expecting mothers still smoke throughout their pregnancy (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Cigarettes contain both nicotine and carbon dioxide. Which are two known compounds capable of crossing over the placental barrier during pregnancy and reducing the fetuses supply of oxygen (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). However, restriction of oxygen to the fetus is only one concern. The expecting mother is also increasing her chances of having a premature delivery, miscarriage, or even a stillbirth. Nevertheless, premature births are the most common occurrences among expecting mothers who smoke (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Infants who are born prematurely are abnormally small â€Å"on average they weigh, 7 ounces less, are 1.4 centimeters shorter, and have a smaller head circumference compared with babies of nonsmoking and non-drug-abusing mothersâ €  (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Although less common than exposure to other drug substances, smoking can cause a variety of defects. The most typical are as follows: (1) congenital abnormalities (heart malformation, cleft lip/palate), (2) brain damage and nerve damage, (3) depressed immune system, (4) poor cognitive abilities (i.e. learning disabilities), and (5) increase chance of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Typically though cognitive abilities are most likely to be impaired. In fact researcher Karen Law (2003) studied the effects nicotine exposure can have on a fetuses neurobehavioral development after birth. Law (2003) found that the infants who were exposed to nicotine during utero were more excitable and hypertonic and showed higher stress levels and abstinence signs when born. Shea & Steiners (2008) research on the effects of prenatal exposure to nicotine found the same results as Law (2003). Shea and Steiners (2008) findings indicated that the nicotine from cigarettes directly affects the fetus’s placental vasculature. This can lead to cognitive and learning deficits in childhood and adolescents, increased risk of hypoxia induced brain damage, and an increased chance of perinatal mortality or even sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) (Shea & Steiner, 2008). Law (2003) and Shea and Steiner (2008) suggest that pregnant women need to avoid smoking during pregnancy in order to prevent serious impairments in neurodevelopment of their fetus. To the majority of expecting mothers exposing their fetuses to nicotine seems much less irresponsible than if they were to expose them to a substance like cocaine or heroine. However, research shows that smoking can and will affect expecting mothers children. May be not to the same extent as cocaine or heroine, but to a point where your child will still be incapable of proper development. Fetal Exposure to Cannabis Sativa (marijuana) It is said that over 17% of expecting mothers smoke marijuana (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Some mothers condone their use of marijuana throughout their pregnancy, because it is said to help reduce pain when labor occurs. Many people would suggest that the majority of studies today imply that the use of marijuana during pregnancy causes only minimal side effects to the overall health of a fetus. Therefore, it is acceptable for mothers to use when pregnant. This is not true. Jutras-Aswad, DiNieri, Harkany, & Hurd, (2009) studied the use of marijuana during pregnancy and the affects it can have on the fetus during utero and after birth. Researchers did this by examining the endocannabinoid (eCB) system and the effects it has on children’s behavior and mental health. Research indicated that eCB has a direct effect on the fetuses’ central nervous systems (CNS) patterning by influencing migration, survival, and differentiation of committed neurons. Researchers discovered that eCB affects the neuronal systems that control mood, cognition, reward, and goal directed behavior. This then effects the fetus’s brain development, which leaves them vulnerable to severe behavioral problems and neuropsychiatric disorders more so than others after birth. After reviewing this research it obvious that marijuana can have a direct impact on the fetuses brain development (Jutras-Aswad, DiNieri, Harkany, & Hurd, 2009). Although the affects may not be apparent during a mother’s pregnancy, they are clearly identified later in infancy and childhood. In fact previous research conducted by Richardson, Day, and Goldschmidt (1995) studied the effects of marijuana use during pregnancy. Children who had been exposed to marijuana during utero were assessed repeatedly during the neonatal period until the age of six. Results indicated that prenatal marijuana exposure became apparent around ages four through six. There was an increase in childre n’s behavioral problems (i.e. affected their goal directed behavior, planning, organized search, and impulse control) and a decrease in their performance on visual perceptual tasks, language comprehension, sustained attention, and memory (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). These findings support the theory that marijuana use during pregnancy can have an effect on children’s neurological development (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). So like many other drugs, it is strongly recommended that expecting mothers avoid the use of marijuana. Identifying & Providing Treatment for Substance Abuse in Expecting Mothers After reviewing the effects of alcohol and other drug substances on fetal development it is evident that expecting mothers need to abstain from substance use throughout their pregnancies. Rassool & Villar-Luis (2006) further support this assumption through their review on the effects that substance abuse can have on fetal development. Researchers identified several drug substances (i.e. alcohol, cocaine, opioids, nicotine, and cannabis) and found direct causes each substance has on expecting mother’s fetuses after birth. Researchers discovered the following primary concerns for each substance: (1) alcohol use can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome an d possible miscarriage of the fetus, (2) cocaine, opioids, and nicotine can cause perinatal complications and unwanted abortions, and (3) cannabis sativa (marijuana) can cause perinatal complications (miscarriage), intrauterine growth restrictions, abruption placentae, pre-term deliveries, and neurobehavioral abnormalities. After reviewing each substance and potential damage it can cause the Rassool & Villar-Luis (2006) suggest that different measures of prevention should be taken by expecting mothers to reduce the risk of harming their fetus. There are forms of prevention and treatment to help expecting mothers reduce the risk of harming their fetus’s development. The most efficient way to help expecting mothers find treatment is through using the necessary screening techniques in which physicians can identify alcohol or substance abuse (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). By doing so physicians can provide proper intervention, treatment, and preventive services to substance abusing mothers (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Typically expecting mothers who use drugs during pregnancy are classified as â€Å"AODs† (i.e. â€Å"pregnant women who use alcohol and other drugs†). The most commonly used instrument to identify AODs was developed by Dr. Ira Chasnoff (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). It is known as the 4Ps Plus Instrument, which consists of four basic questions that essentially help identify AODs (Cohen & Inaba,2007). The questions are listed below: 1.) Did either of your parents ever have a problem with alcohol or drugs? 2.) Does your partner have problem with alcohol or drugs? 3.) Have you ever drunk beer, wine, or liquor? 4.) In the month before you knew you were pregnant, how many cigarettes did you smoke? In the month before you knew you were pregnant, how much beer, wine, or liquor did you drink? Once women with AOD are identified they can properly be treated in order to protect the mother and the growing fetus. Treatment may not seem effective once the expecting mother has already exposed her fetus to alcohol or other substances, but that is not true. Although the fetus is still at risk for some developmental damage it is still possible to stop any more from occurring if the mother stops using. Researchers Mayet, Morgan, MaCormack, & Strang (2008) have support for this assumption through their assessment of mothers who exposed their children to substances during utero and then proceeded to attended perinatal addiction treatment throughout the remainder of their pregnancy. Researchers administered a cross-sectional audit of health-care records in order to compare the outcomes of women in 2002â€⠀œ2005 with data from 1989–1991 and the local (i.e. non-substance abusing women) maternity population in 2004–2005. Research found that less newborns required treatment for neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) in 2002–2005 compared to 1989–1991. However, there were higher rates of miscarriages, low birth weights, and premature infants, compared to the local maternity population between 2004–2004. Findings suggest that perinatal addictions treatment can be extremely beneficial to mothers abusing substances. It lowers the risk of the mother harming her fetus by reducing the amount of drug substances she exposes her fetus to. It also suggests that addiction treatments are becoming more evolved and are better servicing people compared to 1989-1991. In helping women become abstinent from substance use during their pregnancy it will help both them and their child live a healthier life during and after birth. Conclusion In conclusion, it is clear that alcohol and substance use is an increasing problem for the population of expecting mothers. As discussed in the paper the majority of expecting mothers are exposing their fetuses to the followings substances: (1) alcohol, (2) cocaine, (3) opioids, (4) cigarettes (nicotine), and (5) cannabis sativa (marijuana). Expecting mothers are unaware that they are putting their growing fetus at risk for severe developmental deformities and impairments (i.e. physical, mental, and behavioral) due to such exposure in utero and after birth. Not only that, but mothers are increasing their chances of premature deliveries, miscarriages, spontaneous abortions, and stillbirths. Even if their child makes it through delivery the majority of them experience severe Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS), Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), or are born with disorders like fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). However, there are preventive measures that can be taken to avoid substance-abusing mothers risking their fetus’s developmental health. If physicians are able to identify expecting mothers substance use they will be able to give them proper a treatment and care. This will help reduce the chances of the mother impairing her fetus’s development any further (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Mothers will also be able to get â€Å"clean† and raise their child in a healthy environment. Although it may seem impossible, there are ways to help expecting mothers properly nourish their child back to health even when it comes to substance abuse. References Bakhireva, L. N., & Savage, D. D. (2011). Focus on: Biomarkers of fetal alcohol exposure and fetal alcohol effects. Alcohol Research & Health, 34(1), 56-63. Bhuvaneswar, Chaya (2008). Cocaine & opioid use during pregnancy: Prevalence & Management. Prime Care Companion J. Clinical Psychiatry. 10(1): 59–65. Brown, J. V., Bakeman, R., Coles, C. D., Sexson, W. R., & Demi, A. S. (1998). Maternal drug use during pregnancy: Are preterm and full-term infants affected differently?. Developmental Psychology, 34(3), 540-554. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.3.540 Cohen, W.E., & Inaba, D.S. (2007). Uppers, downers, all arounders (6th ed.). Medford, OR: CNS publications, Inc. Feldman, R. S. (2011). Development across the life span (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN:0558937071. Jones, K.L. (1986). Fetal alcohol syndrome. Department of Pediatrics; 8:122-126. Jutras-Aswad, D., DiNieri, J. A., Harkany, T., & Hurd, Y. L. (2009). Neurobiological consequences of maternal canna bis on human fetal development and its neuropsychiatric outcome. European Archives Of Psychiatry And Clinical Neuroscience, 259(7), 395-412. doi:10.1007/s00406-009-0027-z Law, K.L. (2003). Smoking during pregnancy and newborn neurobehavior. Pediatrics Vol. 111: 1318-1323. Mayet, S., Groshkova, T., Morgan, L., MacCormack, T., & Strang, J. (2008). Drugs and pregnancy—Outcomes of women engaged with a specialist perinatal outreach addictions service. Drug And Alcohol Review, 27(5), 497-503. doi:10.1080/09595230802245261 Rassool, G., & Villar-Luà ­s, M. M. (2006). Reproductive risks of alcohol and illicit drugs: An overview. Journal Of Addictions Nursing, 17(4), 211-213. doi:10.1080/10884600600995242 Shea, A. K., & Steiner, M. (2008). Cigarette smoking during pregnancy. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 10(2), 267-278. doi:10.1080/14622200701825908 The Office of Children’s Health Protection (2003).Critical periods in development. ICF Consulting, Inc.

Mode Of Design Art Therapy - 967 Words

Mode of Design Although art therapy is a new practice in psychotherapy, art has always been a form of communication since the beginning of the human history. Evidence is found from the finding 40,000 years ago during the Aurignacian period, on a cave painting found in EL Castillo Cave, Cantabria Spain. Since then, art had become an instrument for self-expression and symbolism. However, it was not until the 1940’s that the therapeutic use of art was then define and develop into a distinct discipline. Though this discipline had only arose independently in America and Europe. Andrew Hill was the first person to refer the therapeutic application of art as therapy in England. The question of â€Å"Is Art Therapeutic?† came into my mind after reading the book â€Å"Art as Therapy† by Alain De Botton. Alain suggested that every piece of art has a purpose, and he had classified the artwork in to seven categories by their purpose to the audience: Remembering, Hope, Sorrow, Rebalancing, Growth and Appreciation. Whilst taking this in mind, I questioned about if the existence in art therapy under psychotherapy that â€Å"Is Art Therapeutic?† Thus, with the recent trend in adult coloring book had brought my attention in questioning â€Å"Why are adult coloring book so popular?† â€Å"Do they really de-stress you?† â€Å"If so, why? 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Root, Root, Pay for the Home Team Taxpayers Funding...

Root, Root, Pay for the Home Team? Taxpayers Funding Professional Sports Stadiums Kayla Thompson MBA 578 SB FT Managerial Economics April 13, 2013 ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to address the issue of the public (taxpayers) funding the construction and/or renovation of privately owned sports stadiums. The use of public funds has skyrocketed since the early 1980s. Why has there been an increase in the trend and what is really going on behind the scenes? Through my research, I have found six articles that deal with many questions surrounding this hot topic issue. First, I will examine how the sports teams and the local governments deal with the public when proposing the funding of the sports teams’ stadiums. After the†¦show more content†¦What sports fan doesn’t like the idea of being able to help pay for his or her favorite team’s stadium? One might say that fans spend a lot of time and money there, so they would like the stadium to be nice and new. It is quite possible that a new stadium could help the team’s performance, or help with the chance to hold a major event, such as the Super Bowl (at least these are perceived notions among many sports fans.) The incentive to win or attend the Super Bowl seems pretty enticing to a fan. Plus, without a new stadium, many owners threaten to leave town if they are denied help from taxpayers. Can you imagine not having your favorite team in town anymore? The pride in having a hometown team is not something to take lightly. The owners and the local government work together to convince the residents of the city and local businesses that it’ll all be worth it in the long run thanks in part to the jobs and revenue being put into the city. Surely fans don’t mind giving a little bit of extra money out of their taxes if it means keeping their favorite team around for many years to come while supplying jobs and extra revenue into local businesses. But, the answer to the main question is not as simple as it may seem, especially to the uninformed sports fan. Take a look at this topic from an economic point of view. Is there an actual economic gain from having a new sports stadium? Professional sports teams are multimillion dollar organizations themselves. WhyShow MoreRelatedWembley Stadium Essay4184 Words   |  17 Pages1.0 Introduction and Scope The New Wembley National Stadium was envisioned to be one of the largest and extraordinary stadiums in the world. It was designed to be constructed with a seating capacity of 90,000 and now stands as the most expensive stadiums ever built. The aim of the project was to build a state-of-the-art national stadium and sought to be the home of English Football and to host other large music concerts, Athletic games and Cup finals. 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Video Games And The Public Schools - 875 Words

Introduction In the modern era, technology has surpassed the public schools in America in importance. For example, in the United States 42% percent of Americans play video games three or more times a week. Video games have become more popular with the increased buyers of smart phones and new TV’s like the smart TV. Children as young as five or six years old get smart phones, in which they play games on at a very young age. Even though these young kids are getting these devices, 40% percent of students lack basic reading skills, and compared to other countries their academic performance is dismal. This is due to schools teaching children how to memorize, not to think for themselves.† (Gee, 2015, p.566). School teaches kids to interact with others, study with responsibility, and to work hard for things. Less Interaction According to many video game addicts, video games teach how become an expert at something.† (Gee, 2015, p.566) Becoming an expert at video games will create less interact with the outside world because most video game addicts sit in their room and play all day by their selves. Unlike video games, school makes kids interact with other kids. For example, many teachers assign students to group projects and group assignments which teaches kids to work together. Working in groups in school is vital for young students because when they are older they can work with others at a job. Also school interaction is helpful over playing video games is because students canShow MoreRelatedU.s. Public Education System854 Words   |  4 PagesThe U.S. public education system has been subject for debate for many years now, budget cuts, overcrowding and lack of innovation have severely impacted the effectiveness of our schools. As a result, according to a report by Education Week, â€Å"In mathematics, 29 nations and other jurisdictions outperformed the United States by a statistically significant margin, up from 23 three years ago† (Heitin). Coupled with our 19th and 22nd ranking of literacy and science respectively, because of this, we canRead MoreDoes Violent Video Games Cause Violent Behavior?1274 Words   |  6 Pages Does Violent Video Games Cause Agressive Behavior in Teens? Ryan Bia Arizona State University Abstract Violence is ubiquitous in today’s modern society and we are constantly exposed to it through the media, movies and through video games. It is not uncommon to go visit a home in the United States and find a video game console in the home along with mature video games. Video games started off just as entertainment that had meager violence but as time progressed the graphics have improved andRead MoreVideo Games, Which Have Been Around For Quite A While Now1106 Words   |  5 PagesVideo games, which have been around for quite a while now is usually perceived as an exciting thriller to most. The use of video games ranges from young children to older men and sometimes women. The video game industry has had a huge expansion in technology and gaming techniques in the recent years causing it to be more appealing to the public eye. Although video games normally have ratings for certain age groups, they are played by everybody no matter the age. There has been an increase in theRead MoreU.s. Public Education System863 Words   |  4 PagesThe U.S. public education system has been a controversial topic for many years; by virtue of budget cuts, overcrowding, and lack of innovation which negatively impacted the effectiveness of schools. According to a report by Education Week, â€Å"29 nations and other jurisdictions outperformed the United States [in mathematics] by a statistically significant margin (Heitin). Coupled with the 19th and 22nd ranking of literacy and science respectively, it is evident students are not receiving a quality educationRead MoreVideo Game : The Cause Of All The Worlds Violence1265 Words   |  6 PagesMelo-Thaiss CUL120YA 18 March, 2015 Video Game – The Cause of All the Worlds Violence Every few years when an unfortunate school shooting takes place in North America, we see headlines all over the news about how violence in video games were the cause of these incidents. The troubled person or persons who performed this act played video games. The media and outraged parents around the world, use games like Grand Theft Auto or Call of Duty as the scapegoats of the video game industry. However today, currentRead MoreViolence and Americas Troubled Youth Essays1069 Words   |  5 PagesVideo games have come a long way since the days of Pong. Advances in technology have allowed games to present state of the art graphics and surreal like qualities to its consumers; from four star simulated battle scenes to enhanced real live fire shoot outs. With all these innovations added to violent video games it attracted the visual needs of our teenage youth. Although video game violence has been blamed for high profile school shootings, video games and its creators should not be hel d accountableRead MoreDo Violent Video Games Doom Young Players? Essay1352 Words   |  6 Pagesthe ages of 6 and 16 have gravitated towards video games. As technology has progressed, developers have greatly improved the graphics of video games. As a result, very real portrayals of human beings can be created. However, in many cases, game makers take advantage of this and incorporate realistic violence in the games. Although games such as these are rated for mature players, children have been able to obtain and play these violent types of video games. Due to this trend, many psychologists andRead MoreDo You Think Violent Video Game Exposure Effect The Behavior Of Children?1244 Words   |  5 PagesDo you think violent video game exposure effect the behavior of children? Introduction Studies show that exposure to violent video games affects the behavior of children.Some have vandalized, beat someone up, took part in bullying someone.As many as 97% of US kids age 12-17 play video games, contributing to the $21.53 billion domestic video game industry. More than half of the 50 top-selling video games contain violence. 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In today’s society very popular, not only do our kids and teenagers play video games but even grown men and women play them as well. Video games are now more popular than watching television or going to the movies. According to Center for

Control Charts Essay Example For Students

Control Charts Essay Charts Control charts, also known as Shareware charts are tools used to determine if a manufacturing or business process is in a state of statistical control. The control chart was invented by Walter A. Shareware, (also known as the father Of statistical quality control) while working for Bell Labs in the asses. The companys engineers were seeking to improve the reliability Of their telephony transmission systems. The engineers had realized the importance of reducing variation in a manufacturing process. Shareware framed the problem in terms Of Common and facial causes variation and in 1324 introduced the control chart as a tool for distinguishing between the two. Dry. Shareware created the basis for the control chart and the concept of a state of statistical control by carefully designed experiments. Control charts in simpler terms are graphs used to study how a process changes over time. Data are plotted in time order. A control chart consists of a central line for the average, an upper line for the upper control limit and a lower line for the lower control limit. These lines are determined from satirical data. It includes points representing a statistic of measurements including things like mean, range or proportion of a quality characteristic in samples taken from the process at different times the data. By comparing current data to these historical lines, one can draw conclusions about whether the process variation is consistent (in control) or is unpredictable (out of control). The standard or standard deviation of the statistic is also calculated using all the samples. The chart may have other optional features, including labels such as peer and lower warning limits, drawn as separate lines, typically two standard errors above and below the centre line. When interpreting control charts, we must understand that it represents a picture off process overtime. To effectively use control charts, one must be able to interpret the picture. The chart above is an example Off stable or in control process. The characteristics that make this chart appear stable are the fact that most points are near the average and some points are near the control limits. NO points are shown to beyond the control limits. The chart above represents an out of control process as one point is displayed above the upper control limit and one is displayed below the lower control limit. Points that fall outside the control limits are an indication of special causes of variance. This source is usually easy to determine and eliminate, In the business world as well as many other fields, control charts are used to reveal and keep track of pertinent information depending on what aspect is being studied. The above control chart is one used by Walter. We can determine that the chart was out to control. This particular chart is used in order to estimate the percentage of items that are defective from a supplier, Sample percentages must stay within limits to keep the process going. Once there is a sample percentage outside those limits, the process is stopped. At this point the company would look for an assignable cause. Most frequently this can be cause by a change in material that they use to make an item. This is the most widely used method of quality control among the companys practices. Another way we use control charts in our daily life if When measuring weight joss over a period of time. Here it is clear to see that the person to whom the data pertain has experienced a steady rate Of weight loss over a three week period. Using a control chart for this type of scenarios helps one to see the trend Of weight either lost or gained over a specific period of time. The purpose Off control chart is to detect any unwanted changes in your process. For example if you notice Saturday and Sundays your weight is stagnant, you can look back and pay closure attention to activities done on those day such as eating out with friends on the week. .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd , .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd .postImageUrl , .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd , .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd:hover , .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd:visited , .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd:active { border:0!important; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd:active , .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u44e3a6879dcbc4a6f82e385326cbc2cd:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Musee Des Beaux Arts Essay PaperOf all the tools for analyzing data, the control chart is the most useful, It is used in everything from healthcare, to business to simple personal use of documenting things like weight loss, Consistent high quality has become a requirement in todays competitive market when it comes to business and retail. These charts help to simplify understandings of a process studied and determine what may be the cause. The control chart can be seen as part of an objective and disciplined approach that enables correct decisions regarding control of the process, including whether or not to change process control parameters.

The Metamorphosis of Wang Lung in The Good Earth P Essay Example For Students

The Metamorphosis of Wang Lung in The Good Earth P Essay earl Buck Good Earth Essays The Metamorphosis of Wang Lung in The Good Earth Many times, changes in wealth and family can alter ones attitude completely. In The Good Earth by Pearl S. Buck, the main character, Wang Lung displays a perfect example of this change. Between his first visit to the House of Hwang (when he went to receive O-lan) and his second visit at New Years (when he brings O-lan and the child to visit), Wang Lung changes from a modest, apprehensive farmer into a proud, rich man. Wang Lungs family, his familys increased wealth, and the House of Hwangs diminishing wealth are all responsible for the changes in Wang Lungs attitude between his first and second visits to the House of Hwang. We will write a custom essay on The Metamorphosis of Wang Lung in The Good Earth P specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now On his first visit to the House of Hwang, Wang Lung does not have a wife or son. He journeys alone to receive O-lan as his wife. A few months after Wang Lung and O-lan gets married, O-lan finds out that she is pregnant. When O-lan delivered their first child, Wang Lung waits anxiously for the announcement of the newborns gender. After O-lan shares the news of their sons birth, `It is a man child! he called triumphantly. `You are grandfather and I am father! (37). Wang Lung is relieved when O-lan tells him that she has given birth to a man child for two specific reasons. First, he is proud because sons carry on the family name. Second, when the son grows up, he can help work in the fields. Thus, Wang Lung feels pride that his first son is male. When he travels to the House of Hwang on the second occasion he is proud to bear a son, consistent with the Old Mistress request at their first meeting to see their first-born child. Wang Lung also takes pride in his family because of his wife, O-lan. On the first visit, when Wang Lung goes to the House of Hwang for the first time to receive O-lan, her position in the great house is considered that of a slave. However, on the second visit she is a guest and visitor. Looking back at her past as a servant, O-lan recalls, Last year this time I was slave in that house. (53). O-lan is happy at the fact that she has an opportunity to change her life completely from a slave to a financially stable. Because of this, Wang Lung is proud that he is able to allow this change in O-lans social background. In conclusion, Wang Lungs attitude is affected by a newfound pride in his family. Wealth is another factor in Wang Lungs attitude changes. At the beginning of the story Wang Lung is a poor, parsimonious peasant who always thinks thoroughly about how he spends his money. Even on the day of his marriage Wang Lung is still concerned about the amount of money he spends. And Wang Lung, to his horror, found there was nothing to do but to produce from his girdle yet another penny. `It is robbery, he muttered, unwilling. (13). Wang Lungs frugality determines his financial dealings, and he is not prone to indulge. Because of his status as a poor farmer, Wang Lung is intimidated when he first approaches the House of Hwang. Conversely, on his second visit, Wang Lung is already prospering from his crops and is hiding a secret stash of silver coins in his wall. An obvious display of his newly gained wealth is the new clothes that Wang Lung, O-lan, and their son wear, as well as the moon cakes that O-lan made. This wealth makes him prideful. .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 , .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 .postImageUrl , .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 , .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50:hover , .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50:visited , .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50:active { border:0!important; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50:active , .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50 .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u1a38cb28cc40bf9a4a4e6e787e948d50:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Technology And Television: Child Obesity Essay An example of this pride on his second visit occurs when he waits for O-lan and his son in the gatemans room. While he is there, the gatemans wife offers him tea as if he were one of the nobles, She presented to him and he set it before him and did not drink of it, as though it were not good enough in quality of tea leaves for him. (49). This behavior is in contrast to the beginning of the plot, .

Mcdonalds in China Essays

Mcdonalds in China Essays Mcdonalds in China Essay Mcdonalds in China Essay Introduction: McDonald’s in China McDonald’s is considered as the most successful and largest restaurant chain in the world. In 1990 McDonald’s opened its first store in Shenzhen China. In 1992, McDonald’s Beijing outlet was opened. There are more than 800 McDonald’s outlets in China today. This paper aims to analyze the importance and the extent to which culture affects the operations of McDonald’s in China. The impacts of the Chinese culture on the operations, policies and decisions of McDonald’s are studied as well as the changes brought about by McDonalds, a symbol of American culture, to the Chinese society. Two areas will be analyzed –employee relations (human resources management processes and policies) and restaurant operations. Part I: The Chinese Culture Kluckohn and Strodtbeck’s Cultural Orientations According to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) there are five basic value orientations underlying cultures. These orientations are human nature (good versus mixed versus evil crossed with the mutability of the goodness), man nature (subjugation to nature, harmony with nature, mastery over nature), time (past, present, future), activity (being, being-in-becoming, doing), and relational (lineality, collaterality, individualism). Human nature refers to the innate goodness of people. A counterexample of this comes from the idea that people are evil, as evidenced in traditional Puritan thought. Emphasis was placed on controlling and regulating behavior to prevent evil from spreading. The man-nature aspect involves the relation of the individual to nature. For instance, many Asia n cultures stress the view that man must be seen as a harmonious part of nature, whereas the orientation of most Anglo Westerners is that of man over nature that is, dominance of nature through technological means. The time orientation refers to the time frame salient to a group. For example, Chinese culture places a great deal of emphasis on ancestral obligations and rites (related to the Confucian principles of relationships and the five moral principles. Such a past orientation is contrasted with the future orientation of Westerners, who are often discontent with their current setting and seek change for the better. An activity orientation concerns self-expression in activity. In a being society, emphasis is placed on immediate gratification and spontaneous action, much like Morriss Dionysian dimension. A being-in-becoming society focuses on action and accomplishment measurable achievements. Finally, the relational orientation involves an individuals relation to his or her collective (Earley 1997). Culture and Its Importance Culture as a meaning system is materialized in patterns of human behavior and social interaction as well as in artifacts and observable rituals. Culture means more than physical materials or observed patterning of human interactions. It is also found in the evolution of distinct systems of ideas, beliefs, values, and their manifestations through symbols, forms of presentation, and patterns of social relationships. Culture is not static but dynamic, a constantly flowing current (Chaffee et al 1994). Each culture has its distinct value systems and orientations (Kluckhohn Strodtbeck 1961). Values are often revealed in the behavioral patterns, community relationships, rituals, and cultural artifacts that make it possible for us to recognize and experience each culture. A conceptual definition must differentiate values from other closely related concepts such as beliefs, attitudes, and norms. Values are a type of belief, but are not identical with beliefs, which are cognitive elements that have existential referents. In Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks terms, a value system is a set of principles that are patterned in a distinct configuration. This patterning of value elements distinguishes one value system from another. For example, both Chinese and Americans value family stability. But in traditional Chinese culture, family stability was built upon the supreme importance of ones obligations to ancestors, clan, and parents. The Chinese value of family stability is closely associated with many other values, such as prohibiting free male-female courtship and reliance on parental arrangement for marriages. This means that forces beyond the marriage itself, primarily those from clan and family elders, are involved in enforcing family stability (Chaffee et al 1994). Study of Chinese Relationships One area in which values differ across cultures is that of social relationships. Social relationships are those that are stabilized institutionally through culturally understood roles and responsibilities. For example, male and female relationships involve culturally accepted behavioral expectations in work situations, in families, and in social interactions. In each of these settings, there are socially accepted definitions of roles, through expected behavioral patterns and responsibilities associated with being a male or female. The same can be said about relationships involving authority hierarchies, seniority, or kinship (Chaffee et al 1994). Traditional Chinese culture is widely considered to be built upon value system crystallized in Confucianism. This traditional value system is revealed through elaborate definitions, regulations, and moral and ethical principles regarding individuals’ roles and relationships. These principles are not just ideas; they are materialized in social practices, including rituals, rites, ceremonies, and cultural artifacts. At the heart of the Confucian system lies linear hierarchy governing family structure, political structure, and the supernatural world. Study of the Chinese Language The Chinese language is one of the oldest living languages, and it is spoken by more people in the world than any other. Its script is used not only in China but in Japan and Korea as well. Nobody knows exactly how old the language is in its spoken form, but its system of writing was in existence nearly four thousand years ago. It probably originated by drawing pictures of word meanings into loess or sand. Like other ancient tongues, Chinese is a pictographic not an alphabetical language. The stylized, simplified pictures called characters or ideographs appeal with some exceptions more to the eye than to the ear. Each Chinese character symbolizes a meaning, an idea; it is not comparable with Western-type words which consist of a limited number of letters. English has twenty-six letters in its alphabet; Chinese is composed of thousands of characters that must be individually memorized by anyone who learns to read and write. The great dictionary compiled during the Manchu dynasty gives some 40,000 characters; however, knowledge of 3,000 to 4,000 characters constitutes a rather adequate reading vocabulary. The modern character often shows little similarity to its original pictorial counterpart because usage as well as changes in writing instruments and materials caused changes in form (Callis 1959). Chinese characters reveal thought processes of the Chinese mind; they have universal appeal to everyone endowed with intelligence and artistic feeling. Written with a pen, characters may look ordinary; but the same characters written with the Chinese brush can reflect the personality of the writer to an extraordinary degree. They will show the flow and rhythm of life movement in which the old Chinese calligraphers took great pride. Classical written Chinese differs so much from the written language of today that intensive training is needed to master both (Defrancis 1986). Study of Chinese Nature Chinas oldest religion, influential among the people until the doorstep of our times, was a nature religion. Spirits of river and mountain, of soil and grain, of wind and water, of field and kitchen, and especially the ancestral spirits of the dead were worshipped. It was believed that they played an active part in human affairs. Lord on High (Shang Ti) was the heavenly ruler of natural forces while the Son of Heaven, emperor of all China, was the mediator between these forces and all men. At the winter solstice when the sun, the great yang, symbol of warmth, health, and righteousness, would give more light again, the emperor would make sacrifices on the Altar of Heaven. In the home of every Chinese family ceremonial honors were brought to the spirits of the ancestors who were regarded as very much alive in the spirit world and revengefully powerful on earth unless properly remembered and revered. Geomancers, knowing about feng-shui, wind and water, saw to it that buildings fitted into their natural surroundings without disturbing the spirits. Work followed the rhythm of the sun, of the seasons, and of crops. Life followed the natural cycle of birth, marriage, and death. The calendar followed the phases of the moon. Festivals were celebrated to remember the ancestors, to venerate the spirits of great men, or simply to mark the seasons and to admire nature. Typical were the Lantern Festival, the Moon Festival, or Ascending High. Chinese were masters in observing nature and using natural products. Silk, medicinal herbs, and vegetable colors are outstanding examples. Tools, toys, and art objects were made of natural materials that the soil or plants provided (Callis 1959). Study of Chinese Human Nature There are traits, combinations of traits, and behavioristic peculiarities characteristic of native Chinese. These may be explained as results of race, geography, society, and a common culture to which all nurtured and raised in China are exposed. Chinese are, in general, hard working, practical, and thrifty. They are used to working much and to thriving on and enjoying little. A trace of optimism, even of humor, seems always present in the Chinese personality. Even under the most trying circumstances a spark of hope for better times is present. Chinese peasants and workmen are rarely demoralized. They keep their chins up, take what comes, help each other out, and are amazingly content in their unending struggle for the bare necessities of life. You can rob an army of its general, but you cannot rob a common man of his will, they will say. If fate turns and things are going very well for them, they readily become easygoing, even complacent, and opulent. They may yield to temptations: gambling, women, and opium. Aroused and angered, a Chinese who has convinced himself of the evil intentions and enmity of his foe can be cruel, determined, and revengeful in the extreme. He may wait long for his opportunity, but he will not forget. On the other hand, the Chinese can be a reliable and sacrificing friend when he is bound by cordial sentiments. As a highly emotional person who thinks with his heart, he is likely to go unjustifiably far in both his animosity and his friendship. Yet to a real or imagined change of heart in his opponent, he himself will respond quickly and warmly. Though accustomed to hide his own emotions under smiles or an impersonal mask, the Chinese is an expert in the psychological observation of others. Nothing escapes him, which is advantageous to know. He can be an unobtrusive, talented spy. Deeds alone, not words, will impress him though he himself is good at playing with words to cover up his true intentions or to mislead his enemy (Callis 1959). The Chinese culture is very different from the Western culture. The discussion above presents a clear picture of the Chinese culture that will aid us in the study of how the Chinese view McDonald’s and how the company used these views, which are culturally driven, to its success. Part II: Importance of Culture to the Operations of McDonald’s in China McDonald’s Culture McDonald’s is the epitome of an American Company. For most Chinese it symbolizes the American Culture. There is a great difference between the American culture and the Chinese culture. McDonald’s as an American company have American values. McDonald’s in China, like elsewhere in the world virtually follows the corporation’s basic American operating system. The majority of employees are called the ‘crew’. In China, and in every country where there is McDonald’s, crew jobs are fragmented into different stations such as working on the till, cleaning tables and emptying bins, garnishing burgers and monitoring fries, bread machines or the grill. Virtually all aspects of the business are highly standardized and rigorously monitored. Assembly line techniques are used to produce and serve identical products; standardization and higher productivity are ensured through new technology and the systematic planning of each job, broken down into the smallest of steps. he corporations industrial engineers measure and plan the equipment layout and scheduling in terms of seconds of working time using computerized time study methods. The workers skills are eliminated and the work is labor intensive with the machinery making the cooking decisions. Lights and buzzers tell workers when to turn burgers or take fries out of the fat. Computerized cash registers do most of the thinking for till and window workers, separating the hand and the brain in classic scientific management style. According to Royle (2000), the basic principles of the McDonald’s business model are: oHigh degree of standardization in all process oVarious standardizes layouts and concepts for the restaurants oAlmost identical products all around the world with only few adaptations oVery strong quality management oHigh levels of control in collaborations McDonalds Corporation believes that standardization is the most rational means of maximizing cost efficiencies. In addition, standardization has cultural functions, where the company maintains a global corporate image for marketing and advertising purposes (Ritzer, 1996 cited in Pereira 2002). McDonalds rationalization could be seen in its optimization of work processes, particularly through the use of technology. This is more than simply referring to the use of equipment and machinery, for McDonalds technology includes all processes from the preparation, cooking and serving of the food right up to the systems of financial accounting, ordering of stocks, staff planning and training. All these processes have been fine-tuned towards achieving cost and labour efficiency, and minimizing wastages (Leidner 1993 cited in Pereira 2002). Cultural Views of the Chinese about McDonald’s In the eyes of many Chinese, McDonald’s represent the American culture and the promise of modernization. McDonald’s highly efficient service and management, its spotless dining environment, and fresh ingredients have been featured repeatedly by the Chinese media as exemplars of modernity (Yan 1997). According to Li (1999) people in China are drawn to McDonald’s because of its novelty, status and symbol. Yan (2000) argues that McDonald’s attraction fro Chinese customers does not come from its food but from the sociality of the space it provides to consumers. The space is sociable, because it gives customers a sense of public accessibility, a sense of equality between customers and restaurant employees, and, among women customers, even a sense of gender equality. For these reasons, while McDonald’s in the United States is a place for grabbing some fast food, in Beijing it is a place for friends and colleagues to hang out and communicate (cited in Yang 2002). Most international fast food chains in China, particularly McDonald’s are targeting children. The policy of one child per family has had the effect of turning single children into fussy little emperors, the center of attention of parents and relatives. High-quality food and beverage products provided by companies such as McDonald’s are targeted at children, where they find a ready market. While McDonald’s remains essentially American in terms of menu, services, and management, the company has made serious efforts to adapt to the Chinese cultural setting. To present itself as a local company, all the restaurant sin Beijing actively participate in community projects with local schools and neighborhoods (Luo 2001). McDonald’s, American Culture and Chinese Culture As McDonald’s becomes a global phenomenon, it teaches non-Western and non-US audiences new forms of producing and consuming food, while initiating some cultures into modernization and modernity itself. Studies of the introduction of McDonald’s into Asia, for instance, stress how McDonald’s teaches consumers to queue up and wait in line and enter rationalized processes of food consumption. It provides an experience of cultural otherness that enables non-Westerners to participate in the culture of Western modernity. It teaches non-Western workers speed and efficiency, as well as food hygiene and customer service (Watson 1997 cited in Kellner 2003)). It is thus part and parcel of the process of globalization that is producing new forms of culture, social practices, and ways of life. For global citizens, McDonalds represents the charisma of the golden arches, Ronald McDonald and McDonaldland, the tie-ins and promotions, and the ubiquitous advertising, aimed at a variety of genders, races, classes, and national subject-positions, which attempt to incorporate more and more cultures and sets of consumers into its McWorld. In China, McDonald’s signifies Western modernity and presents itself as an alternative to their traditional culture in terms of cuisine and social experience. However, the Chinese culture also affects McDonald’s. One example is how McDonald’s adapts to the culture and cuisine of the Chinese. McDonald’s in China redesigned its menu, serving noodle dishes along with Big Macs and allows regional owners to vary the menu according to local tastes. In its global attempts to articulate McDonalds with local forms of various cultures, the corporation calls Ronald McDonald Uncle in China and also has an Aunt figure, drawing on Chinese respect for elders and relatives (Kellner 2003). The cultural background of the Chinese people shapes their views and attitude toward McDonald’s. As a country that has been secluded from the rest of the world, the entrance of McDonald’s in China has fueled curiosity and the Chinese people’s desire for modernity and to be included in the global village. The discussion above stresses the importance of culture to the operation of McDonald’s in China because culture shapes attitudes and affects behavior and attitude. In order to be successful in China, McDonald’s need to study the Chinese culture and to be able to adapt to the norms and expectations of the Chinese society. Part III: The Impact of Culture on Employee Relations of McDonald’s in China Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions: China and The United States One of the most popular works in the study of culture is that of Geert Hosfstede (1984). Through his research and surveys he theorized that cultural and sociological differences between nations can be categorized and quantified, thereby allowing comparison of national cultures to take place. Hofstede identified five cultural dimensions. These are: 1. Power Distance The dimension of power distance is about the extent to which power structures are hierarchical and reflect significant inequalities in power. Countries with large power distances exhibit wide inequalities in power, power that is often concentrated in relatively few hands in heavily centralized and hierarchical organizations. Individuals within such cultures view themselves as inherently unequal: subordinates are dependent on those higher up the hierarchy and accept the power of their superiors by virtue of their position in the hierarchy. All participants in the hierarchy expect their position within it to be clearly demarcated. China is considered as a large power distance country. In small power distance countries, individuals are more inclined to regard themselves as equals: rather than expecting to be told what to do, subordinates expect to be consulted and will argue a case with those higher up the organization. Respect for individuals within the organization comes from their proven capacity to perform a role rather than from the possession of a particular job title or their place in an organization. Shorter small power distances coincide with flatter organization structures. The United States is considered a country with small power distance. 2. Uncertainty Avoidance Uncertainty avoidance measures the lack of tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. This manifests itself in high levels of anxiety and emotion. This in turn translates into a preference for highly structured formal rules and limited tolerance for groups and individuals demonstrating deviant ideas or behaviors. 3. Individualism vs. Collectivism The individualist-collectivist dimension measures the degree to which the interests of individuals or of the group take priority. The social framework in an individualistic society is looser than that of a more collectivist society and individuals take responsibility for themselves and their immediate as opposed to extended families. Individualist societies demonstrate a greater regard for individual rights and freedoms and tend to be characterized by assertiveness and competitiveness rather than by teamwork and cooperation. China is considered a country that is collectivist. In China, it is the group (which could be the extended family, the employer or the society as a whole) that looks after the interest of individuals and gives them their sense of identity. In return fro this protection, individuals offer the group loyalty and work towards the attainment of goals determined by and for the good of the group, organization or society. The United States on the other hand is a highly individualistic society. 4. Masculinity – Femininity Societies that place a high premium on assertiveness, achievement and the acquisition of material possessions are exhibiting aggressive or masculine goal behaviour. Masculine environments also favour conflict and competition in the workplace. Cultures that place a high value on social relationships, quality of life and sensitivity demonstrate passive or feminine goal behaviour. Cultures and workplaces scoring high on the femininity dimension exhibit high degrees of cooperation, negotiation and compromise. The United States can be considered as a masculine culture while China is leaning toward femininity. 5. Short- vs. Long-Term Orientation This cultural dimension was not included in Hofstedes original analysis but added at a later stage. In countries with a short-term orientation, which is more characteristic of Western societies (particularly the United States) and of some Asian countries such as Pakistan and the Philippines, the emphasis is on the immediate gratification of needs, a focus on the present and the attainment of short-term goals. In cultures with a more long-term orientation, which include the cultures of Japan, China, South Korea and Taiwan, the satisfaction of needs is deferred for the sake of long-term benefits and growth. Associated characteristics include persistence and thrift. International Human Resource Management International Human Resource Management is the process of procuring, allocating and affectively utilizing human resources in a multinational corporation (Sims 2002). IHRM according to Briscoe and Schuler (2004) is about understanding, researching, applying and revising all human resource activities in their internal and external contexts as they impact the process of managing human resources in enterprises throughout the global environment to enhance the experience of multiple stakeholders, including investors, customers, employees, partners, suppliers, environment and society. In the case of McDonald’s culture has little effect on the company’s operations. Although the company has invested so much on making it’s restaurants appear as local as possible, the company system remains intact. McDonald’s conduct crew-level training at 25 workstations in addition to using step by step manuals and videotapes. Due to its international scope, translators and electronic equipment are provided, which enables professors to teach and communicate in 14 languages at one time. In addition to training, its Hamburger Universities provide a variety of advanced business management course, which allows aspiring managers to earn college credit. McDonalds Corporations organizational structure and its use of technologies appear to influence its employment policy. McDonalds is structured into three main groups: the headquarters team, the restaurant managers and the crewmembers. The headquarters team refers to a small group of senior executives and managers in charge of public (community) relations, finance, personnel, human resources, training, property management and several other tasks. As the restaurant managers task involves day-to-day management of the restaurant, McDonalds usually hires secondary school leavers to fill the post as the majority of the jobs training is conducted within the restaurant itself. Restaurant managers began their careers in McDonalds as trainee managers, before rising to become second assistant manager, first assistant manager, and finally restaurant manager. The higher the managerial position, the greater the number and the complexity of tasks, including staffing, training and recruitment of crew members (and junior managers), budgeting, accounting, and maintaining discipline. Numerically, crewmembers are the largest group in the organization, but are remunerated with the lowest wages. The crews main tasks are preparing and serving the food, and cleaning the restaurant. As these tasks are relatively simplified due to the heavy rationalization of the technology, the McDonalds Corporation does not need to hire a person with a lot of education or skills. The crew face the least favorable employment conditions in comparison to the other two groups. For its employment policies, McDonalds Corporation has its own espoused philosophy, which believes that issues of efficiency and equity can be dealt with without the need for unions (Love 1995; Royle 2000). The company has its own Human Resource Management programme, one which is similar to many other corporate HRM programmes, where the main objectives are to foster employee loyalty and to keep its employees satisfied through individualizing employee relations (Beaumont 1995). McDonald’s is the largest food service operation in the world in terms of system wide sales. McDonald’s is a franchised based multinational company that establishes franchises and company-owned operations to export its products. McDonald’s has developed highly standardized and uniformed products with minor alterations depending on the local market. McDonald’s also developed a highly standardized operating system and procedure. The HRM procedures in the host country are virtually the same as the host countries. However, there are different issues that affect the IHRM practices in McDonald’s, particularly in Europe.